From the Apollo missions to Artemis
- Feb 22
- 8 min read
Updated: Feb 22
Decades have passed since humans left their first footprints on the surface of the Moon – an achievement of NASA¹'s Apollo 11 mission that redefined the limits of science, technology, and human imagination itself, and which deserves to be revisited.
This extraordinary milestone continues to inspire generations and takes on new significance now, as NASA's Artemis Program prepares the next steps in the return of humans to space.
The Moon, which was the culmination of the Apollo missions, is ceasing to be a final destination and will become, in the future, a strategic platform for preparation and learning – the first step in a new era that propels humanity towards Mars.
Let us therefore return to the Apollo 11 mission, for a better understanding of this entire evolutionary trajectory of space discoveries, from the Apollo missions to Artemis.
Apollo 11: The historical record of the first human being to set foot on the lunar surface.
On July 20, 1969 , NASA's Apollo 11 spacecraft entered lunar orbit. The vehicle consisted of three main parts: the Command Module , named Columbia , which served as the control cabin and return capsule to Earth; the Service Module , responsible for power and propulsion; and the Lunar Module , named Eagle , a self-propelled vehicle designed to land on the lunar surface. After establishing orbit, Eagle detached from the main spacecraft and began its controlled descent to the lunar surface.
After completing their visit and direct observation of the lunar surface, which lasted 2 hours and 31 minutes, the astronauts returned to the Eagle spacecraft. They remained there for 19 hours and 5 minutes to organize the lunar samples, have meals, rest, and prepare the vehicle for launch. This entire process took 21 hours and 36 minutes .
At liftoff, only the upper part of the lunar module Eagle —called the ascent stage —lifted off from the surface to rendezvous with the Command Module Columbia in orbit. The base of the Eagle , with its landing legs and braking engine for landing on the moon, called the descent stage , remained on the Moon . After the astronauts returned to Columbia , the ascent stage was jettisoned in lunar orbit . Only the Command Module, where the astronauts were located, returned to Earth and landed by parachute in the Pacific Ocean.
To accomplish this memorable feat, Apollo 11 traveled approximately 384,000 km at an average speed of approximately 5,058 km/h – from planet Earth to the moon's orbit – a journey of about 3 days and 4 hours .
The Apollo 11 crew consisted of three astronauts: Neil Armstrong , Buzz Aldrin , and Michael Collins . Armstrong and Aldrin descended to the lunar surface in the lunar module, while Collins remained in the command module Columbia , orbiting the Moon.
Returning from the moon, the lunar module Eagle approaches the command module Columbia, in lunar orbit, for docking. Above, in the background, a view of planet Earth. Image Credit: NASA/Michael Collins.
The historic event was broadcast live to approximately 49 countries , reaching roughly 600 million people – one of the largest media events ever recorded at the time.
Upon descending from the lunar module Eagle, astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first to set foot on the moon, uttered the phrase that would transcend generations: “ That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind .” Armstrong's phrase encapsulated the historical magnitude of the achievement. It wasn't just a landing. It was proof that humanity was capable of surpassing its own physical and technological limitations. This at a time when computers were less powerful than a modern scientific calculator and navigation systems were based on manual calculations and analog instrumentation.
Due to the extensive media coverage it received – given the unprecedented nature of the extraordinary event – many who weren't even born at the time still believe that this feat only happened once. However, although Apollo 11 was the first, the lunar landing was repeated in five other missions of NASA 's Apollo program, totaling six different occasions in which astronauts walked on the Moon between 1969 and 1972 , as we can see in the table below:
Mission | Astronauts who walked on the Moon | Landing date on the moon | Return date to Earth |
Apollo 11 | 2 | July 20, 1969 | July 24, 1969 |
Apollo 12 | 2 | November 19, 1969 | November 24, 1969 |
Apollo 14 | 2 | February 5, 1971 | February 9, 1971 |
Apollo 15 | 2 | July 30, 1971 | August 7, 1971 |
Apollo 16 | 2 | April 21, 1972 | April 27, 1972 |
Apollo 17 | 2 | December 11, 1972 | December 19, 1972 |
Twelve men walked on the lunar surface during that short period. Since then, however, no human being has returned to the surface of the Moon – a hiatus of more than half a century that is now beginning to be challenged by a new generation of missions with new purposes.
The Artemis missions
Nearly five decades later , the Artemis Program was created to resume and expand human presence beyond low Earth orbit² . However, the current approach differs from the space race of the 1960s – NASA is building a sustained program, step by step, with modern technology and commercial and international partnerships.
Artemis missions/NASA. Credit: SATNow
Artemis I: Uncrewed Test (2022)
The Artemis I mission was launched on November 16, 2022, using the new Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion capsule. This uncrewed mission tested critical systems: launch, trajectory to the Moon, lunar orbit, and return to Earth, covering more than 2.3 million kilometers.
Compilation of NASA videos, launch of Artemis 1, presented by Digital Astronaut.
Episode Credits: Directed and Edited by: Jared Belcher Video and Audio provided by NASA Episode Music: “Across the Sea” Composed by Blake Ewing, Performed by Brooke Mitchels.
Artemis II: Crewed mission to lunar orbit (2026)
The next mission, Artemis II, is planned to have its rocket launched no earlier than March 6, 2026 , from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida (USA) . It will be a flight of about 10 days with four astronauts aboard Orion , going beyond Earth's orbit and performing a flyby around the Moon (the astronauts will circle the Moon and return, without landing) before returning to Earth.
The goal is not to land on the Moon, but to test life support systems, communications, navigation, and deep-weather operations with a crew, which is fundamental for future missions. This prepares the ground for the next step in the program and reduces risks before a landing attempt.
Artemis II is expected to take about four days to reach the Moon and another four days to return to Earth. During this period, the astronauts will continue to check and analyze the performance of the spacecraft's systems, as well as practice protocols and emergency simulations . At the same time, their bodies will be monitored to expand knowledge about the effects that space travel has on the human body.
Artemis II to the Moon: From launch to water landing (Animation of the NASA mission). Credit: NASA.
Artemis III: lunar landing (scheduled for 2027–2028)
The Artemis 1 (uncrewed) and Artemis 2 (crewed, to lunar orbit) missions are test flights for a new chapter in human space exploration . Artemis III is planned to be the first crewed mission to land on the Moon since Apollo 17 (1972) , in 2027 or 2028. The date may vary depending on testing and development of the lunar descent module. This mission will use a combination of the SLS rocket, the Orion spacecraft, and a Human Landing System (HLS) that will embark astronauts on the lunar surface.
The Artemis mission series (2022-2028) aims to surpass the achievements of the Apollo Program (1969-1972) : it's not just about reaching the Moon, but about having a more consistent presence there, according to Lori Glaze , acting associate administrator of NASA's Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate.
“Unlike Apollo, this time, when we go to the Moon, we want to stay. We want to have a sustainable presence on the Moon. We want to be able to return multiple times. Over the years, to really learn how to live and work in this environment that is a little further from Earth."
According to Krishna (2005), in an article published in National Geographic , understanding the impact of space travel on Artemis astronauts will be fundamental for a future mission to Mars.
The Orion capsule, in itself, already represents a challenge, as it offers only 9.34 m³ of habitable space for four astronauts to live, work, and sleep for almost ten days, making confinement an object of study.
Orion spacecraft cabin . Credit : NASA
Krishna (2005) reports that, according to Steven Platts , chief scientist of the Human Research Program, there are three experiments on board, all with voluntary crew participation. One of them assesses psychological well-being and sleep patterns in an isolated environment —essential data, since Artemis II will be the first manned mission beyond Earth's orbit since 1972.
Two other studies analyze the physiological effects of space , according to Krishna (2005). Blood and saliva samples will be collected before and after the mission to examine biomarkers and hormones . During the flight, astronauts will collect saliva on special absorbent paper, allowing for later comparison with pre- and post-mission samples.
The crew will also conduct an obstacle course test before and after the flight to measure the impacts of microgravity on balance, coordination, and stability . This will be the first time this experiment has involved astronauts who have traveled beyond Earth's orbit.
The Moon is not the final destination – it's the starting point. The Artemis program was designed to establish a sustainable human presence in the lunar environment and, from there, prepare for the next giant leap: taking astronauts to Mars , as confirmed by NASA Administrator Bill Nelson :
"With Artemis, we will explore the Moon for scientific discovery, technological advancement, and learn to live and work on another world while preparing for human missions to Mars."
The Moon, therefore, will continue to be studied and used as a strategic base to develop the capabilities necessary for an even more audacious challenge: the human arrival on Mars — in a future perhaps not so distant.
Founder and Editor: Luiz Cincurá
Notes:
¹ Created in 1958, headquartered in Washington, D.C., and with ten field centers across the United States, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the federal government responsible for the United States' civilian space program and for research in aeronautics and space exploration .
² Low Earth orbit (LEO) is the region of space located approximately between 160 km and 2,000 km above the Earth's surface. It is the orbital range closest to the planet and the most used for Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, manned missions, and space stations. For example, the International Space Station (ISS) orbits at an altitude of about 400 km , within low Earth orbit.
Sources:
CBS News . Apollo 11 Broadcast Archive. Accessed on: February 17, 2026.
KRISHNA, Swapna. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. The farthest journey in human history is about to begin . 2025. Accessed on February 19, 2026.
NASA . Apollo Mission Overview and Apollo History. Accessed on: February 17, 2026.
NASA Artemis: Mission, Objectives, and Sequence of Phases . Accessed February 19, 2026.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. Historical Coverage & Analysis. Accessed on: February 17, 2026.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. The farthest journey in human history is about to begin. Accessed on February 19, 2026.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM. Apollo Program Overview . Accessed on: February 17, 2026
THE NEW YORK TIMES . Historical archive. Accessed on: February 17, 2026.
WIKIPEDIA. Artemis II details: launch, crew, duration and objectives . Accessed on February 19, 2026.
Wikipedia. NASA . Accessed February 21, 2026.
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